Consequences Of Human Intervention Research Articles

When Rural Resilience Came to the City: Libanios on Villagers Moving through Fourth-Century Antioch

In the fourth century AD, the relation between the city of Antioch and its hinterland underwent significant change. In response both to environmental transformation and the consequences of human intervention, resilient rural communities in the Amuq plain north-east of the city took on new political, economic, and religious significance. From a distinctively urban perspective, the sophist Libanios criticized and deplored this development, most famously in his oration 47 from around the year 390 with regard to the emerging political and judicial independence of larger villages in the Antiochene. The same phenomenon was addressed roughly 50 years later by the Christian author Theodoret of Kyrrhos, who, however, appreciated the new rural self-confidence as a religious revival spearheaded by holy men. But just as the late antique realities of villagers and city-dwellers rarely met, neither physically nor intellectually or culturally, also the contrasting perspectives represented by Libanios and Theodoret remained largely disconnected. In one instance, however, Libanios related an account of hinterland representatives that moved through Antioch’s urban space, confronted the city with a specifically Antiochene type of rural resilience, and challenged, according to Libanios, much of what Antioch stood for. As such, this episode highlights the importance of mobility in city-hinterland relations and, pointedly, its significance for the study of rural resilience in late antiquity.

Community Parameters and Genome-Wide RAD-Seq Loci of Ceratothoa oestroides Imply Its Transfer between Farmed European Sea Bass and Wild Farm-Aggregating Fish.

Wild fish assemblages that aggregate within commercial marine aquaculture sites for feeding and shelter have been considered as a primary source of pathogenic parasites vectored to farmed fish maintained in net pens at an elevated density. In order to evaluate whether Ceratothoa oestroides (Isopoda, Cymothoidae), a generalist and pestilent isopod that is frequently found in Adriatic and Greek stocks of farmed European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), transfers between wild and farmed fish, a RAD-Seq (restriction-site-associated DNA sequencing)-mediated genetic screening approach was employed. The double-digest RAD-Seq of 310 C. oestroides specimens collected from farmed European sea bass (138) and different wild farm-aggregating fish (172) identified 313 robust SNPs that evidenced a close genetic relatedness between the “wild” and “farmed” genotypes. ddRAD-Seq proved to be an effective method for detecting the discrete genetic structuring of C. oestroides and genotype intermixing between two populations. The parasite prevalence in the farmed sea bass was 1.02%, with a mean intensity of 2.0 and mean abundance of 0.02, while in the wild fish, the prevalence was 8.1%; the mean intensity, 1.81; and the mean abundance, 0.15. Such differences are likely a consequence of human interventions during the farmed fish’s rearing cycle that, nevertheless, did not affect the transfer of C. oestroides.

Per‐ and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances, Microplastics, and COVID‐19: Will We Ever Learn?

At the time of this writing, the coronavirus pandemic has the attention of the entire world. It has been aptly referred by many scientists as the ultimate Black Swan event; that is to say, an extremely surprising random occurrence that is having a huge impact on the world economy and that experts try to explain away as something that was predictable, if only we had had the imagination to foresee it. The rapid spread of the virus to all corners of the globe, the number of infections, and the death toll are beyond belief in a world that unwittingly celebrated the beginning of a new decade just a few months ago. This global health emergency reminds us that we live in a deeply interconnected world. It focuses our attention on the most vulnerable in society, on the need for global cooperation, and on the importance of professional leadership and expertise. Sound familiar? Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is preceded by several environment and health emergencies that we felt, at that time, would also remind us of a shared humanity, our inseparable connection to the environment, and the need for unity. Perhaps most prominent prior to the emergence of the coronavirus were the alarms sounding about the pervasive presence of plastic debris in our oceans, microplastics in the food chain and consumed by people, and the widespread use of the newly designated class of forever chemicals called per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). In fact, these are the latest in a long list of emergencies and calls for action dating back to recognition in the 1960s of the dangers posed by DDT and pesticides and, thereafter, by Hg, PCBs, dioxins, and flame retardant substances. In hindsight, each time our response has been predictable. Shock and horror are soon replaced by laying blame and finger pointing, filing lawsuits (certainly true in the United States), and regulatory bans. With respect to chemical hazards, early reactions reflect our concerns for public health and as time passes migrate to the possible consequences for the environment and for wildlife. Scientific studies are commissioned, investigation methods are devised, and work is conducted around the world. The results arrive, and scientific and legal arguments ensue, claiming bias in the study methods, analysis, and interpretation of the data used to support certain points of view. Meanwhile, the onslaught of laboratory experiments and environmental monitoring continues, taking full advantage of the sudden availability of financial resources and opportunities to claim leadership and capture the public's worried attention. Concurrent with this sequence of events is the deluge of papers submitted to scientific review panels and technical journals for peer review where the information is debated and more often than not found to be incomplete and requiring further investigation. The cause of the crisis is rarely understood. The scientific process takes years to clarify and at a snail's pace; all the while politicians formulate regulatory policy and move forward to appease a panicked public. And, so it goes…until the next Black Swan event. Society should be increasingly immune to surprise by Black Swans. The ability to predict the consequences of human activities and technological inventions—both chemical and mechanical—have improved immensely during our professional lives. Scientists understand well the consequences of human intervention in nature and subsequent cause-and-effect relationships. This has been our life's work. The scientific process takes years to clarify and at a snail's pace; all the while politicians formulate regulatory policy and move forward to appease a panicked public. The fundamental question society faces today, and most certainly the scientific community, as a consequence of the ongoing coronavirus pandemic, is not whether we have sufficient knowledge of the fate and effects of chemicals or plastics or even viruses on the environment and human health; it is whether we are able to connect scientific observation and theoretical study to real-life consequences. We appear to suffer from a grand “not-in-my-backyard” attitude, wherein we have a void in our imaginations and ingenuity that inhibits our ability to translate science safely to the function and enjoyment of our daily lives. We simply do not have sufficient knowledge of our place in nature or control of our imaginations to foresee consequences, ask key questions, and to put a process in place. Can it be that we fundamentally misunderstand cause and effect? Pearl and Mackenzie (2018) describes 3 levels on the ladder of causation. The ladder is a metaphor for understanding potential realities. The lowest step of the ladder is what he calls “seeing,” that is, observing how variables may be associated. In statistics this level corresponds to observing associations. And although the late Peter Chapman would gladly remind us all that “association is not causation,” associations can suggest places to investigate. The second step of the ladder is “intervention.” Experiments are interventions; the classic before-and-after control field design is another excellent case. However, experiments may lead to an understanding that after x, then y occurs, but not lead to the understanding of the mechanism. It is not the why or how question that is key to predicting a previously unrecognized or unobserved event. The third step of Pearl's causation ladder is perhaps the rung scientists rarely step upon. It is labeled “counterfactual.” Here we must ask “what if” and “so what” questions. We must imagine new situations and retrospectively examine prior experiments and experiences to gain insight into causal mechanisms. An understanding of mechanisms helps us to explore more critical questions. For example, when Hooper et al. (2013) ask how climate change affects biochemical pathways that regulate toxicity, Carriger and Barron (2011) imagine a variety of scenarios and the effects of different management options to mitigate the possibility for enhancing toxicity. Graham et al. (2019) imagine even larger scale consequences for an entire region of the continent of Australia. And by so imagining, we collectively avoid Black Swans. Are we enlightened by the current events of COVID-19 and are we likely to witness another global pandemic of biological or chemical origin in the future? Most certainly, on both accounts. Scientists need to be better at imagining new conditions, unexpected observations, assimilating experimental and field research into a series of mechanistic questions. Scientists need to have an investigatory and management plan for plausible Black Swans. Then when such an event occurs, it may have already been imagined and we have a process to understand the observation. For now, current events are an opportunity for discovery and to devise a strategic viewpoint, a careful process, and clear reporting.

Sustainable development and anthropogenic induced geomorphic hazards in subsiding areas

AbstractIn many areas of the world, subsidence related to the lowering of the water table is modifying the landscape and provoking costly environmental hazards.We consider the Dead Sea (the Earth's lowest lake) as a model. Its water level was 395 m bMSL in the 1960s. Due to water diversions in the catchment area, as of 2016, the level has dropped to about 430 m bMSL. Here, as in other parts of the Anthropocene world, from China, to Iran, to Turkey, to Canada and the United States, consequences of human interventions are rapidly modifying the environment. Aggressive geomorphic processes leading to accelerated degradations are taking place and affecting landforms and infrastructures.In Tectonic terms, the lake is a pull‐apart basin resulting from the motion of the Dead Sea Transform fault. Since the 1960s, a slice of brine of about 35 km3 has been lost. The water table is dropping more rapidly in the lake than in the coastal zone creating an ever‐increasing head difference. Consequently, groundwater moves towards the sea to compensate for the imbalance, provoking the reactivation of the area's paleo‐channels with subsidence, sinkholes, and landslides.Since the 1980s, industrial‐touristic infrastructure has covered newly emerging lands in geomorphic hazards‐prone areas of the coastal zone.Time series analysis of high to very high resolution visible/radar satellite images acquired from the 1970s to present, revealed major landscape evolution. Such dynamic systems prevailing in recent decades permitted the study of human/environment interactions to help minimize their effects.Major deformations of an industrial dike were analysed and quantified. The results underline the necessity in the Anthropocene of careful analysis of relevant data sources acquired before and during subsidence, particularly in karst topography zones and prior to the development of major human activities in economically appealing environments around the world. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The Ecosystem Engineer Crassostrea gigas Affects Tidal Flat Morphology Beyond the Boundary of Their Reef Structures

Ecosystem engineers that inhabit coastal and estuarine environments, such as reef building oysters, do not only stabilise the sediment within their reefs, but their influence might also extend far outside their reefs, affecting tidal flat morphology and protecting the surrounding soft-sediment environment against erosion. However, quantitative information is largely missing, and the spatially extended ecosystem engineering effects on the surrounding soft-sediment largely unstudied. To quantify this, we measured elevations around eleven natural Crassostrea gigas reefs occurring on tidal flats in the Oosterschelde estuary (the Netherlands). These tidal flats experience strong erosion as a consequence of human interventions in the system. Various reef sizes were chosen to test the proportional effects of reefs on tidal flat morphology. Measurements were used to create 3-dimensional surface maps to obtain properties of the reefs and the surrounding soft-sediment environment. The area of the oyster reefs ranged from 2 to 1,908 m2. Reef length varied between 1 and 61 m, reef width between 1 and 45 m, and reef height between 0.20 and 1.08 m. Reefs varied in shape, going from round shape structures to more elongated ones. We observed elevated areas (>5 cm elevation from the background intertidal slope) on the lee side of all reefs, caused by the interaction between the reef’s structure and locally prevailing wave conditions. The elevated area (i.e. the spatially extended ecosystem engineering effect) affected by the reef was of the same order of magnitude as the reef area. The elevated area was related to reef properties such as reef length, width, and height. Reef length, however, appeared to be the best predictor. These findings contribute to management solutions for coastal adaptation and protection. Our study clearly showed that oyster reefs not only protect the tidal flat under their footprint, but as well an area beyond the boundary of the reef.

From biological fundamentals to practice, and back

It has become evident that advances in farm animal reproduction have become increasingly dependent on fundamental scientific research in addition to an understanding of the physiological processes involved in reproduction. As a consequence, most innovations are now coming from a long linear process starting with fundamental scientific research to their application on the farm and lastly, consumer acceptance. The emerging perception of life's complexity is also indicating that technical advances must be better understood before they are implemented by the producer and accepted by the public. To the biological complexity, one must now add the complexity of human interaction on a global level through regulation, international trade and public information. In this context, more than ever, advancements in animal reproduction must be developed in parallel with the scientific understanding of the cause and consequences of human intervention.

Editorial: The treatment of multi‐drug resistant tuberculosis – a return to the pre‐antibiotic era?

We as scientists have an obligation to address the ethics of transnational research, the distribution of drugs of the so-called ‘diseases of poverty’… (Beyers & Chan-Yeung 2003) When the eyes don't see the heart doesn't feel (Spanish proverb) When Magdalena was 15 years old she was diagnosed with smear-positive pulmonary tuberculosis (TB). She lived with her mother, a stepfather and 13 siblings in a very humble dwelling in an Andean country. Her stepfather would often beat her because she was unable to perform her assigned domestic chores. As a result, she would flee and abandon her treatment. She was prescribed several regimens which she took erratically. Three years later she was still smear-positive; the chest X-ray showed multiple cavities in both apices and drug susceptibility testing confirmed resistance to isoniacid (H), rifampicin (R), ethambutol (E) and streptomycin (S). The following year she became pregnant and died of respiratory insufficiency 6 months later. Peter is a 45-year-old primary school teacher in an Eastern African country; he lives with his wife and several children. In September 2000, he was diagnosed with smear-positive TB and was given the category I regimen (2HRZE/6HE; Z = pyrazinamide); at the completion of treatment he was still smear-positive. Despite taking the category II regimen (2HRZES/1HRZE/5HRE) twice, he remained smear-positive. He saw a consultant in the capital who prescribed the entire gamut of second-line TB medications. The only drug which Peter was able to find was ciprofloxacin, which he took for several months. His latest drug susceptibility tests have demonstrated resistance to H, R, E, S and ciprofloxacin; the chest X-ray shows multiple cavities, especially in the left lung. He remains weak, emaciated, dyspnoeic and smear-positive. These two patients from different continents had two characteristics in common: first, they suffered from a very serious form of TB; and secondly, they could not be treated adequately for lack of medication. Let us briefly examine the reasons underlying their clinical condition and lack of effective treatment. All patients harbouring large numbers of bacilli have some mutant organisms resistant to one anti-TB drug. The number of these resistant bacilli is minimal compared with the population of susceptible bacilli and will be of little clinical significance as long as the patient is not exposed to an inadequate therapeutic regimen. Large numbers of resistant bacilli are the consequence of human intervention, which, by selecting the few naturally existing resistant bacilli, afford them a microbiological and clinical role they would not have under ‘normal’ conditions (no exposure to anti-TB drugs). Resistance cropped up almost as soon as the modern era of TB treatment began, more than 50 years ago, when streptomycin was administered as monotherapy (Crofton & Mitchinson 1948). Many patients with meningitis were cured, but those with pulmonary TB and large bacillary populations rapidly became resistant. Because naturally mutant bacilli are resistant to only one drug (resistances to different drugs are not linked and are therefore highly unlikely) the detection of resistance to more than one anti-TB medication implies a multi-step selection process: the patient must have received a sequence of several non-curative regimens. The result is a sick person who, through faulty human intervention, has been transformed from a patient suffering from a fully drug-susceptible disease into a patient suffering from a multiple drug-resistant disease. Resistance to the two most effective drugs, isoniacid and rifampicin, is termed multidrug-resistance (MDR); its treatment is far from easy and frequently results in failure or even death (García-García et al. 2000; Lockman et al. 2001; Mukherjee et al. 2004). Little attention was given to MDR-TB until the last decade, as it was not considered to be an important problem. A group from Denver had given due attention to this issue (Iseman 1993) but it was not until several outbreaks took place in the United States (Dooley et al. 1992; Pearson et al. 1992; Frieden et al. 1993; Salomon et al. 1995) that the world began to take notice. Two surveys by the WHO and the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease using standard guidelines revealed that resistance to TB medications was universal but varied greatly between countries and specific areas. MDR-TB was detected in several ‘hot spots’ but had a very uneven distribution in the world (Espinal et al. 2001). These surveys generated important data and demonstrated the urgent need to address this issue on a global scale and, more specifically, in areas with scarce resources. Globally, MDR-TB is not decreasing. In 2005, more than 1% of patients diagnosed with TB who had never received treatment were MDR (World Health Organization 2005). Under the auspices of WHO, a Working Group on DOTS-Plus for MDR-TB was formed in 1999 with the main objective of preventing further spread of this man-made phenomenon. Securing second-line drugs at significantly reduced prices was one of the Group's major achievements. It was decided that second-line drugs should be made available only to specialized units linked to a laboratory capable of performing reliable drug susceptibility tests. At present, a project for treating patients with MDR-TB has to be submitted through a National Control TB Programme with its government's support and follow the guidelines developed for establishing DOTS (directly observed treatment short course)-Plus projects. Then, if approved by a Green Light Committee set up by WHO and comprising several institutions, cheap second-line drugs will be made available under strict supervision (Gupta et al. 2001, 2002). Patients with MDR-TB, such as Magdalena or Peter, who live in a country where no DOTS-Plus projects have been approved, will be unable to obtain effective drugs. The resolution of their disease will depend entirely on its natural course. Faced with this situation, several controversial issues merit discussion. Cheap second-line drugs are unvailable (unless through Green Light Committee-approved projects) because of the fear that their inadequate use will create further resistance. This argument is not fully justifiable as the only people who need second-line drugs are those patients who already have some degree of resistance; patients with fully susceptible bacilli receive the more effective first-line drugs. ‘The possible loss of second-line anti-TB drugs due to resistance does not take us back to the 1940s’ (Brown 2004): our patients arealready in the pre-antibiotic era and will remain there until their demise! It is ironic that because of the concern of contributing to the difficulties in managing a serious clinical condition – which we may have created – we refuse curative medications to patients suffering from this condition. WHO has established that no intervention against MDR-TB should be undertaken unless it can be implemented countrywide (Espinal et al. 1999). This is tantamount to refusing treatment to all patients with TB (drug-resistant or not) in a particular country unless a well-functioning National TB Control Programme is in place. This argument, based on epidemiological and cost–benefit considerations, may be valid for those taking decisions away from the field. For a sick individual, discussions about prevention come too late and are irrelevant. Health personnel in close contact with patients find it hard to explain to them that their illness should have been prevented; that if they had not followed an inadequate regimen (because of poor adherence or because of faults in the health system) they would not harbour bacilli which we cannot eliminate with our available tools; and that the needed medications exist but that we cannot obtain them because of a poorly performing National TB Control Programme unable to deliver the much needed drugs correctly. Several programme managers are of the opinion that no attention should be paid to patients suffering from MDR-TB as long as the number of successful treatments among susceptible patients does not reach a significant proportion. A patient who has failed with the first treatment (category I) and who may have resistant bacilli will be given the re-treatment regimen (category II) as a last chance and if no cure is achieved not much else will be offered. This regimen not only fails to cure MDR-TB but can further increase resistance (Espinal et al. 2000; Furin et al. 2000; Noeske & Nguenko 2002; Han et al. 2005), as only streptomycin is added to the original regimen. There have already been calls for its discontinuation (Espinal 2003). Although this reasoning may seem logical (Why try to cure the ‘difficult’ patients while we are unable to cure the ‘easy’ ones?) I do not share this view: treatment of patients with TB under a National TB Control Programme is not a zero-sum equation. Adequate care of the small numbers of patients with MDR-TB does not necessarily have to impinge on the treatment of the large number of susceptible patients (Sterling et al. 2003). In fact, the technical and financial support required for treating patients with MDR-TB could strengthen the National TB Control Programme (Kim et al. 2003) and, eventually, the entire health system. An important issue that requires urgent action is the fact that patients with MDR-TB not receiving treatment are excreting highly dangerous bacilli until the day their disease spontaneously cures itself or until they die. It has been shown that MDR bacilli are effectively transmitted from person to person and may cause infection and disease (Kritski et al. 1996; Schaaf et al. 1999; Van Rie et al. 2000; Teixeira et al. 2001). The treatment of contacts of patients with MDR-TB poses several problems as studies demonstrating the effectiveness of any particular treatment are scarce and no consensus has been reached on the best prophylactic regimen (Fraser et al. 2006). The world has not shied away from offering complex regimens with potentially toxic and expensive medications that must be administered for life to people with HIV. The ‘3 by 5’ initiative of WHO and partners aimed to put on treatment no less than 3 000 000 persons (Mukherjee 2004). There is no reason why people with other infections should be denied rights that have been recognized for HIV patients. Why is it that what is a good for AIDS patients is not a good for others also? (Ollé-Goig 2004). We urgently need to face the multiple issues related to MDR-TB. It is imperative to find a solution to the dilemma of universal access to second-line drugs in order to save the patients with this form of TB, which carries a very poor prognosis when not treated. Neglecting this problem will increase the disparities in the care of our patients, and our goal of greater equity will be pushed further out of reach. I dedicate this article to the patients with MDR-TB who I have cared for on the American and African continents who could not obtain adequate treatment.

Echinococcus multilocularis: an emerging pathogen in Hungary and Central Eastern Europe?

Echinococcus multilocularis, the causative agent of human alveolar echinococcosis, is reported for the first time in Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Hungary. This parasite may be spreading eastward because the population of foxes has increased because of human interventions, and this spread may result in the emergence of alveolar echinococcosis in Central Eastern Europe.